Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ratio-dependent response of a temperate Australian estuarine system to sustained nitrogen loading

  • Ecosystem Ecology
  • Published:
Oecologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Classical resource- and the less studied ratio-dependent models of predator–prey relationships provide divergent predictions as to the sustained ecological effects of bottom-up forcing. While resource-dependent models, which consider only instantaneous prey density in modelling predator responses, predict community responses that are dependent on the number of trophic levels in a system, ratio-dependent models, which consider the number of prey per consumer, predict proportional increase in each level irrespective of chain length. The two models are only subtly different for systems with two or three trophic levels but in the case of four trophic levels, predict opposite effects of enrichment on primary producers. Despite the poor discriminatory power of tests of the models in systems with two or three trophic levels, field tests in estuarine and marine systems with four trophic levels have been notably absent. Sampling of phytoplankton, macroinvertebrates, invertebrate-feeding fishes, piscivorous fishes in Kooloonbung Creek, Hastings River estuary, eastern Australia, subject to over 20 years of sewage discharge, revealed increased abundances in all four trophic levels at the disturbed location relative to control sites. Increased abundance of phytoplankton at the disturbed site was counter to the predictions of resource-dependent models, which posit a reduction in the first trophic level in response to enrichment. By contrast, the increase in abundance of this first trophic level and the proportionality of increases in abundances of each of the four trophic groups to nitrogen loading provided strong support for ratio dependency. This first evidence of ratio dependence in an estuarine system with four trophic levels not only demonstrates the applicability of ecological theory which seeks to simplify the complexity of systems, but has implications for management. Although large nutrient inputs frequently induce mortality of invertebrates and fish, we have shown that smaller inputs may in fact enhance biomass of all trophic levels.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams PA (1982) Functional responses of optimal foragers. Am Nat 120:382–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams PA (1984) Foraging optimization and interactions in food webs. Am Nat 124:80–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams PA (1994) The fallacies of “ratio-dependent” predation. Ecology 75:1842–1850

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams PA, Ginzburg LR (2000) The nature of predation: prey dependent, ratio dependent or neither? Trends Ecol Evol 15:337–341

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akçakaya HR, Arditi R, Ginzburg LR (1995) Ratio-dependent predation: an abstraction that works. Ecology 76:995–1004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arditi R, Ginzburg LR (1989) Coupling in predator–prey dynamics: ratio dependence. J Theor Biol 139:311–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arditi R, Ginzburg LR, Akçakaya HR (1991) Variation in plankton densities among lakes: a case for ratio dependent models. Am Nat 138:1287–1296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell JD, Burchmore JJ, Pollard DA (1978a) Feeding ecology of a scorpaenid fish, the fortescue Centropogon australis, from a Posidonia seagrass habitat in New South Wales. Aust J Mar Freshwater Res 29:175–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell JD, Burchmore JJ, Pollard DA (1978b) Feeding ecology of three sympatric species of leatherjackets (Pisces: Monacanthidae) from a Posidonia seagrass habitat in New South Wales. Aust J Mar Freshwater Res 29:631–643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bender EA, Case TJ, Gilpin ME (1984) Perturbation experiments in community ecology: theory and practice. Ecology 65:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brett MT, Goldman CR (1997) Consumer versus resource control in freshwater pelagic food webs. Science 275:384–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burchmore JJ, Pollard DA, Bell JD (1984) Community structure and trophic relationships of the fish fauna of an estuarine Posidonia australis seagrass habitat in Port Hacking, New South Wales. Aquat Bot 18:71–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burchmore JJ, Pollard DA, Middleton MJ, Bell JD, Pease BC (1988) Biology of four species of whiting (Pisces: Sillaginidae) in Botany Bay, New South Wales. Aust J Mar Freshwater Res 39:709–727

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR (1988) Complex interactions in lake communities. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Kitchell JF, Hodgson JR, Cochran PA, Elser JJ, Elser MM, Lodge DM, Kretchmer D, He X, Von Ende CN (1987) Regulation of lake primary productivity in food web structure. Ecology 68:1863–1876

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis DL, Goldstein RA, O’Neill RV (1975) A model for trophic interaction. Ecology 56:881–892

    Google Scholar 

  • Fussmann GF, Weithoff G, Yoshida T (2005) A direct, experimental test of resource vs. consumer dependence. Ecology 86:2924–2930

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginzburg LR, Akçakaya HR (1992) Consequences of ratio-dependent predation for steady-state properties of ecosystems. Ecology 73:1536–1543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorokhova E, Hansson S (1997) Effects of experimental conditions on the feeding rates of Mysis mixta (Crustacea, Mysidacea). Hydrobiologia 355:167–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hairston NJ, Hairston NS (1993) Cause–effect relationships in energy flow, trophic structure, and interspecific interactions. Am Nat 142:379–411

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansson L-A (1992) The role of food chain composition and nutrient availability in shaping algal biomass development. Ecology 73:241–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansson S, De Stasio BT, Gorokhova E, Mohammadian MA (2001) Ratio-dependent functional responses—tests with the zooplanktivore Mysis mixta. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 216:181–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassel MP, Varley GC (1969) New inductive population model for insect parasites and is bearing on biological control. Nature 223:1133–1136

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling C (1959) Some characteristics of simple types of predation and parasitism. Can Entomol 91:385–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Laxton JH, Duell JD (1992) The dynamics of Kooloonbung Creek. In: Laxton JH, Laxton ES (eds) Report prepared for Hastings Municipal Council. Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd

  • Leibold M (1989) Resource edibility and the effects of predators and productivity on the outcome of trophic interactions. Am Nat 134:922–949

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowry JK (1999 onwards) Crustacea, the higher taxa: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 2 October 1999. http://www.crustacea.net/

  • Matson P, Berryman A (1992) Special feature: ratio-dependent predator–prey theory. Ecology 73:1531–1566

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton SJ (1989) Ecosystem-level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats. Nature 341:142–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mittelbach GG, Osenberg CW, Leibold MA (1988) Trophic relations and ontogenetic niche shifts in aquatic ecosystems. In: Ebenman B, Persson L (eds) Size-structured populations. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 219–235

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien WJ, Hershey AE, Hobbie JE, Hullar MA, Kipphurt GW, Miller MC, Moller B, Vestal JR (1992) Control mechanisms of arctic lake ecosystems: a limnocorral experiment. Hydrobiologia 240:143–188

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paerl HW (1997) Coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: importance of atmospheric deposition and groundwater as “new” nitrogen and other nutrient sources. Limnol Oceanogr 42:1154–1165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paerl HW, Pinckney JL, Fear J, Peierls B (1998) Ecosystem response to internal watershed organic matter loading: consequences for hypoxia in the eutrophying Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 166:17–25

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Persson L, Diehl S, Johansson L, Anderson G, Hamrin SF (1992) Trophic interactions in temperate lake ecosystems: a test of food chain theory. Am Nat 140:59–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pihl L, Baden SP, Diaz RJ (1991) Effects of periodic hypoxia on distribution of demersal fish and crustaceans. Mar Biol 108:349–360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platell ME, Potter IC, Clarke KR (1998) Resource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs (Batoidea: Urolophidae) in coastal waters of temperate Australia. Mar Biol 131:719–734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polis GA, Strong DR (1996) Food web complexity and species diversity. Am Nat 147:813–846

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponder W, Clark S, Dallwitz M (2000) Freshwater and estuarine molluscs: an interactive, illustrated key for New South Wales. CSIRO, Collingwood

    Google Scholar 

  • Power ME (1992) Top-down and bottom-up forces in food webs: do plants have primacy? Ecology 73:733–746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabalais NN, Turner RE, Wiseman WJ (2002) Gulf of Mexico hypoxia, aka “the dead zone”. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 3:235–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenzweig M, MacArthur R (1963) Graphical representation of predator-prey interactions. Am Nat 97:217–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryther JH, Dunstan WM (1971) Nitrogen, phosphorus and eutrophication in the coastal marine environment. Science 171:1008–1013

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shurin JB, Gruner DS, Hillebrand H (2006) All wet or dried up? Real differences between aquatic and terrestrial food webs. Proc R Soc B 273:1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith VH (1998) Cultural eutrophication of inland, estuarine, and coastal waters. In: Pace ML, Groffman PM (eds) Successes, limitations, and frontiers of ecosystem science. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 7–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Stow CA, Carpenter SR, Cottingham KL (1995) Resource vs. ratio-dependent consumer-resource models: a Bayesian perspective. Ecology 76:1986–1990

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ware DM, Thomson RE (2005) Bottom-up ecosystem trophic dynamics determine fish production in the northeast Pacific. Science 308:1280–1284

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson RS, Hutchings PH, Glasby CJ (2003) Polychaetes: an interactive identification guide. CSIRO, Collingwood

    Google Scholar 

  • Wootton JT, Power ME (1993) Productivity, consumers, and the structure of a river food chain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:1384–1387

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank M. Green, B. Carter, R. Cawley, T. Cooper, E. Howitt and K. Scully for help in the field and laboratory. C. Krogh (Hastings Council) provided long-term water-quality data. This research was funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (to B. P. Kelaher and D. J. Booth), a UTS Early Career Researcher Grant (to B. P. Kelaher) and by a consultancy awarded to the Ecology Lab by the NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation and Hastings Council. Two anonymous reviewers, D. Hessen and C. Körner, improved the quality of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Sciences, Institute for Water and Environmental Resource Management, University of Technology, P.O. Box 123, Broadway, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia

    Melanie J. Bishop, Brendan P. Kelaher, Paul H. York & David J. Booth

  2. The Ecology Lab Pty Ltd, 4 Green Street, Brookvale, NSW, 2097, Australia

    Marcus P. Lincoln Smith

Authors
  1. Melanie J. Bishop
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brendan P. Kelaher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marcus P. Lincoln Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Paul H. York
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. David J. Booth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melanie J. Bishop.

Additional information

Communicated by Dag Olav Hessen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bishop, M.J., Kelaher, B.P., Smith, M.P.L. et al. Ratio-dependent response of a temperate Australian estuarine system to sustained nitrogen loading. Oecologia 149, 701–708 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-006-0481-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-006-0481-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation